By Zhang Tiewei

The friendly exchanges between China and the Arabian region can be traced back to over 2000 years ago, during which the Chinese and the Arabs have forged profound friendship.

Both the valleys of Yangtze River, Yellow river in China and that of Tigris River, Euphrates River in the Arabian region are the cradles of ancient human civilizations. In the Mid-century, Arab philosophy, literature, medicine and mathematics were world famous while China was well-known for silk, porcelain, ironware and the Four Great Inventions of paper-making, gunpowder, compass and printing. The exchanges of the two cultures and the frequent trade of products have propelled each other’s social progress. The exchanges of friendly visits enhanced mutual understanding and promoted friendship between the two.

I. A Review of History

Since history was recorded in written forms in China, the Arab world has been mentioned from time to time in a series of history books, including Han Shu (History of Han), Wei Lue (History of Wei), Shi Ji (Historical Records by Sima Qian), Tong Dian (Cyclopedia of Institutions, by Du You of Tang Dynasty) and etc. Chisan City in Wei Lue is today’s Alexandria of Egypt and Molin in Tong Dian is today’s Morocco. In Arab history, the earliest record of China was in Geography written by an Egyptian named Claudius Ptolemaeus.     

In Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-25AD), Zhang Qian, “traveling throughout the Western Region” opened a road to Arab countries and other places in west Asia, which is also known as the Silk Road. It started from Chang’an in China, going west through Tianshan Mountain, passing Kashghar of Xinjiang, Afghanistan, Iran and ended in Iraq, Syria and other places in the Arabian region. Every year, countless Chinese, Persian and Arab merchants run their trade via this vital east-to-west transport line. They transported silk and porcelain from China to the west and took Arabian specialties to China. During the reign of Emperor Hanwudi (156 BC to 87 BC), many envoys were sent to the west, who reached as far as Parthia (Iran) and Lixuan (a province in east Rome, today’s Syria and Egypt; also identified as Alexandria by some other scholars), Antiochia (northeast Arabia). Some of them traveled back and forth. Some stayed there for eight or nine years. In Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), Ban Chao was sent to the Western Land as an envoy of the Emperor. He sent his assistant Gan Ying to Antiochia in 97 AD. Hou Han Shu (History of Eastern Han) mentioned that in the ninth year after Emperor Hanhedi was coroneted (97), Protector General Ban Chao sent Gan Ying to Daqin (some scholars interpreted as Rome) with him arriving in Antiochia finally. This was the first time that Chinese government in the ancient time ever sent an envoy to visit the Arabian region, marking the start of exchanges of official visits between the two sides. As Shi Ji recorded, “Antiochia, located thousands of li (one li equals to 500 meters) to the west of Parthia, bordering the ocean to the west, is a populous place with weather humid and hot in summer. Rice is planted in the fields and birds are huge with eggs as big as urn.” Shi Yi Ji (The Record of the Missed) read, “In the first year after Emperor Han’andi got the crown (120), Antiochia sent envoy to pay tribute, among which a bird called Zhi Que, as tall as two meters, understand human language.” Tong Dian recorded, “Traffic to Antiochia was open in Han Dynasty. Antiochia, 22,100 li away from Yangguan Pass, is located to the west of Congling (Oasis Land, today’s Pamier Plateau). These historical records are all strong testimony to the friendly exchanges between China and the Arabian region from 1 AD to 2 AD.

During the period of Three Kingdoms (220-280), Sun Quan (King of Eastern Wu Kingdom) himself met with Arab friends. San Guo Zhi (Romance of Three Kingdoms) recorded the contacts between the State of Caowei (220-265) and the Arabs. It also depicted cities, towns, products, specialties, customs and traditions in the areas along Tigris River and Euphrates River. At that time, things from China were everywhere in the Arab markets. Xi Yu Tu Ji (An illustrated Book of the Western Regions) written by Pei Ju of Sui Dynasty (581-618), an official in charge of trade with western regions recorded many stories in China-Arab exchanges.

China in Tang Dynasty (618-907) was one of the strongest nations in the oriental world, during which China-Arab exchanges also entered into a new phase of development. During 6^th to 13^th century, the exchanges came to the peak. In the Arab world, Mohammed created Islam in 622, which was universally believed and practiced by all Muslims. The Arabs invaded and occupied Egypt in 641 and unified North Africa in 698. The first Arab state ruled by Khalifah was established in 632, which was recorded as Tazi in historical books of Tang Dynasty. Umayyads Dynasty (661-750), established on the land of Damascus of Syria, passed on through 14 generations and ended in Abbasids Dynasty after 90 years of existence. It is referred to as White Tazi in Chinese historical records. Abbasids Dynasty (750-1258), known as Black Tazi, was founded in Baghdad of Iraq. It lasted about 509 years through 37 generations before ending by a Mongol called Hulagu. Fatimids Dynasty, founded in Tunis and Algeria in 909 was recorded by Chinese history books as Green Tazi. In history, the Abbasids Dynasty once invaded Persia. While waging the war northeastwards to Shi State (today’s Tashkent), Tazi troops once had battles with Tang troops. Black Tazi defeated the troops of Gao Xianzhi, Governor of Parthia in Talas Battle and seized many Chinese labors and craftsmen, who later settled down along the valleys of Tigris River and Euphrates River, disseminating Chinese culture and art. Tang and Tazi resumed friendship the second year after the war and dispatched envoys to each other again. In 755, An Lushan staged a military coup in Fanyang (today’s Beijing), waging a war against the authority and soon occupied Luoyang and Chang’an. With Shi Siming joining the rebellion later on, the situation became extremely severe. Tang Emperor finally resorted to the help of Tazi and Huihe people to quell the upheaval. Some Tazi soldiers settled down in the northwest part of China and their off-springs merged into the great Chinese people gradually.

According to historical records, in the second year after Emperor Tanggaozong of Tang Dynasty ascended the throne (651), Khalifah Osman sent envoy to Chang’an, the first ever official Arab delegation to China. The “Legend of Tazi” in Tang Shu (Tang History) recorded that “in the second year of Emperor Tangyonghui’s reign (651), Tazi King Danmimomo sent envoy to the court, saying that Tazi has been established for 34 years and ruled successively by three kings. It has been confirmed that the then Tazi King “Danmimomo” was Khalifah Osman, the third heir to Mohammed (644-656). Within the span of 147 years between 651 and 798, Tazi sent envoys to China for more than 30 times. For instance, Jiu Tang Shu (Old Tang History) recorded “Tazi, located to the west of Persia, sent envoy to pay tribute in the second year of Emperor Tangyonghui’s Reign (651).” “The envoy brought to Chang’an excellent horses as tribute. In the second year of Tangzhongzong’s Reign (711), they presented similar treasures. In the beginning of the Tang Kaiyuan Period (713-741), envoy came with horses and jewelries as tribute to the Emperor.” Xin Tang Shu (New Tang History) recorded “people in Tazi pray five times a day. They neither drink nor play music. They build halls for praying, which can house hundreds of people.” Du Huan, who stayed in Arab countries for more than a decade, wrote in Jing Xing Ji (Traveling Experience) that “Tazi is also called Agura (today’s Kufa of Iraq). Women hide their faces behind veils whenever going out-door. People, no matter rich or poor, prestigious or ordinary, pray five times a day…No drinking or music is allowed.” Tazi “is the hometown of narrow peach, jujube, egg-sized grape. The climate is mild and land is never frozen or covered with snow. Land, with high content of sand and stone is not suitable for cultivation.” In the book called Ce Fu Yuan Gui (officially compiled history book), there are even more stories of China-Arab exchanges.

Tang Dynasty witnessed new development of ship-making and navigation. Chinese business fleet often traveled to as far as the Persia Gulf and the Red Sea while Arab ships sailed far eastwards to India, China and other places. As a result, trade and exchanges of official visits between the two increased dramatically. Suleiman, a great Arab traveler frequently depicted in his book You Ji (Journey to the East) the scenes of Chinese ships arriving at ports in the Persia Gulf and the Red Sea with full loads of goods. Port Alexandria, which was established in 332 BC, had become an important distribution center for international trade. Silk and porcelain were first shipped here and then transported to further west. In Tang Dynasty, Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Yangzhou and other coastal cities became vital ports in international trade. Merchants from Persia and Arab countries, sometimes as many as tens of thousands, gathered at these ports. Some of them settled down. Some arrived occasionally during their voyage and stayed for short-time business. In Guangzhou, authorities appointed officials to govern foreign merchants and returned overseas Chinese with regulations based on domestic laws, orders and foreigners’ features. There is one paragraph in Suleiman’s Journey to the East, saying that “Muslim merchants mostly gathered in Guangzhou. Consequently, Chinese Emperor appointed a magistrate governing Muslims in accordance with their customs and traditions. The magistrate spent several days out of a week praying together with other Muslims and reading sages’ teachings and admonitions. He is upright and unbiased in addressing complaints. Justice is administered based on the teachings of Koran and Muslim customs.”

In the mid-eighth century, Abu Obide Abdullah Qasim, an Oman navigator sailed to Guangzhou along the “Spice Road” of the sea. This is the first visit by Omani to China that has ever been recorded in Arabs’ history. While in China, the earliest record of Oman appeared in Hou Han Shu (East Han History), several centuries earlier than Arabs’ record. The book read “if traveling westwards for 3,400 li, one arrives in Oman”. In ancient Arabian region, Oman was famous for its ship-making and navigation. Their ships, made with edge-cutting techniques, were light in weight and fast in moving. No wonder its trade and maritime traffic was extremely dynamic. Muscat and Sohar, the most important ports of international trade in Oman, were also vital bases of international exchanges with China. The story of Sinbad sailing to China in the Arab folk literature One Thousand and One Nights, is a reflection of the prosperous exchanges between China and the Arab world. In July 1981, Sohar, a replica of ancient wood sailboat traveled along the ancient “Spice Road” of the sea to Guangzhou once again. It is indeed a recap of the ancient exchanges represented by Sinbad and other friendly massagers. Chang’an, the capital city of Tang Dynasty was the then political, economic and cultural center of China. At that time, it was extremely prosperous and dynamic with many foreign merchants, overseas Chinese and foreign students living there, quite a lot of whom came from the Arabian region. Even today, their traces can be found in some mosques or on tomb tablets in Xi’an (Chang’an is now called Xi’an).

In the heyday of Tang Dynasty, the exchanges between China and the outside world became increasingly frequent. Religions, including Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Jing Jiao and Manichaeism, were introduced to China one after another. Churches and mosques were built in great number in places such as Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Yangzhou, Zhenjiang and Chang’an. Some of them or their relics still exist. Among various religious beliefs, Islam was the most prevailing one.

In Tang Dynasty, China-Arab exchanges by the sea were the most frequent. Maritime trade was under direct administration of the central government. Jia Dan (730-805), Prime Minister during Emperor Tangdezong’s reign, was quite familiar with the maritime traffic between China and Arab world. His book Gu Jin Jun Guo Xian Dao Si Yi Shu (“A General Topography”), which was written on the basis of his on-spot investigations and information he collected as a senior official, recorded in details the maritime routes: ships sail from Guangzhou, goes through the Strait of Malacca, passes Sri Lanka and the west coast of Indian Ocean, enters the Oman Gulf and the Persia Gulf, arrives at Basra via Bahrein islands and finally reaches Baghdad, capital of Arab Khalifah. Ships may also get into the Gulf of Aden if it sails southwards at the mouth of Oman Gulf. From Jia Dan’s topography, readers can get an overall picture of the maritime traffic between China and the Arabian region.

During the 300 years of Song Dynasty (960-1279), official exchanges of visits between China and the Arab world exceeded 40 times according to historical records. Arab delegations consisted of envoys, officials, chief representatives of independent tribes in Tazi, merchants and ship-owners. During Emperor Songtaizu Zhao Kuangyin’s reign (960-976), monk Xing Qin started his journey to the western region in 966. Zhao Kuangyin asked him to convey his greetings to Khalifah of Black Tazi. Later on he himself dispatched special envoy to Tazi. In 968, the second year after monk Xing Qin visited Tazi, Khalifah sent envoy to visit China, as history recorded in 968 AD, Tazi sent envoy to present treasures as tribute to Song Emperor. During the span of 89 years from 968 to 1056, Tazi visited China about 17 times.

Most Tazi people traveled to China by sea. Due to poor roads in the northwest part of China and difficulty in transporting goods there, Emperor Songrenzong made an order, asking Tazi people to resort to maritime traffic and denying them the access to China from the west borders. In Song Dynasty, China’s ship-making and navigation became even more advanced. Ships, which are big, strong and equipped with mast, sail, scull and rudder moved safely and fast. Big ones could accommodate 500 to 1000 people. The application of compass facilitated the smooth sailing of ships. With huge deadweight tonnage, ships transported more goods. Increased trading volumes in turn generated more profits and taxes. Government revenue hiked drastically. The policy of “promoting foreign trade and attracting tributes” was proved effectively. Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Mingzhou became important ports of international trade. Domestic and foreign merchants, in particular those from Tazi and Persia, all gathered there.

In order to adapt to the rapid grow of international trade by sea, Song authorities promulgated Shipping Law and foreign trade regulations. It was ordained that foreign trade was under the direct control of the government; certain categories of goods were only allowed for government to purchase, others were given free access to markets. In Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Mingzhou and Hangzhou, Shi Bo Si (the earliest form of customs or department of foreign trade) were set up. According to Song Hui Yao (Collection of Degrees and Regulations in Song Dynasty), “Shi Bo (Foreign Trade Management) is the most lucrative. If properly handled, it brings about tens of thousands of money”, “The earnings from Shi Bo increases the nation’s wealth. It is better to attract more foreign merchants, open ports and encourage exchange of goods.” It is more than obvious that the setting of Shi Bo Si delivered huge profits and played an important role in the society. In order to award foreign merchants for their contribution to international trade, the government granted official positions or imperial titles to them. Sometimes the Emperor himself met with very important merchants so as to “promote national prosperity”.

As increasing number of foreigners came to China, more Tazi people and Persians settled down, Song authorities began to attach greater attention to their daily life, including clothing, food, housing and transport. Foreigners’ community and schools were established so that they live close by and their children enjoyed easy access to schooling. On one hand, collective management is much easier, on the other hand, their customs, traditions and religious practices were also properly respected. In 1009, grand Arab-style mosques were constructed in Quanzhou for Muslim to pray. These policies and management measures were practical, conducive to the state and applauded by foreigners. Song Dynasty was successful in handling external relations, which also serves as important historical experience for our current opening-up practice. Facts have proved that opening wider to the outside world, strengthening friendly exchanges, trading needed goods conforms to the interest of people and the nation. In the end, it helps to promotes economic growth and social progress. However, attention should be given to the work of regulation and administration, which is of vital importance. Historical records mention that there were about ten thousand Tazi people and Persians in China, who were also the most affluent ones. All envoys and merchants from Tazi, Persia need to pay tribute to Chinese Emperor. The Legend of Tazi of Song History reads that in 995, a Tazi ship-owner Pu Yatuojili-Pu-Ximibiao (蒲押陁赍黎蒲希密表) sent 100 liang (1 liang equals to 50 grams) borneol, 50 sets of Wanaqi (penis and testes of the ursine seal used as medicine), one silver box of Longyan , 26 glass bottles of Yinyao (an ointment mixed with silver powder and mercury), 3 glazed urns of sugar, jujube, 6 glazed bottle of Chinese magnolia-vine fruits, one bottle of narrow-shaped peach, 20 bottles of rose perfume, one frankincense fragrant rockery, two rolls of silk, 3 rolls of camel fur as tribute to the court.”

In 1206, Genghis khan was elected leader of Mongols. Not before long, he waged full-scale war. Mongols occupied Xinjiang, Afghanistan, Iran, valleys along Tigris River and Euphrates River, Ural, Don River, lower reach of Volga River one after another until Khubilai Khan terminated Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279). In Central Asia and northeastern Arabian region, Mongols defeated Khwarizm, exterminated Black Tazi in its 37^th generation in 1258 and established Ilkhanate kingdom. In 1279, Mongols founded Yuan Dynasty after terminating the Southern Song Dynasty. Khubilai Khan, grandson of Genghis khan became Emperor of Yuan Dynasty. Hulagu, another Genghis khan’s grandson became King of Ilkhanate kingdom (today’s Iran). By then, the vast land from China to southern Moscow, from East Asia to the valleys along Tigris River and Euphrates River were all under the control of Mongols. At that moment, the east-to-west traffic through the Silk Road on land and the Spice Road of the sea were no longer impeded with any obstacles, which also helped to close up China-Arab exchanges. One can choose to sail to Baghdad from Guangzhou by sea or travel westwards until reaching Baghdad via Central Asia. It was so convenient that traveling for thousands of miles feels like going to a near neighbor’s home. Flow of trade and goods, exchanges of science, technology and culture between China and the Arab world entered into a period of full blossom. At that point, crowds of Chinese were doing business in the Arabian region while even more Arabs were running business or settled down in China. In Yuan Dynasty, an Arab called Ibn Batuta traveled to China and claimed Citong Port (known as Quanzhou Port today) the biggest one in the world, where hundreds of big ships and numerous smaller ones were anchored. Marco Polo also described in his traveling journal that Quanzhou port and Alexandria Port were the two largest ports in the world in terms of trading volumes. It shows that the then exchanges between China and the Arab world were unprecedented.

In the beginning of Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Chinese began to call Tazi as Alabi. Ma Huan wrote in Ying Ya Sheng Lan (Tour to the Overseas) that “People in the country speak Alabi language. Drinking is forbidden by law. Folks are friendly and harmonious.” According to History of Ming Dynasty, Arab envoys paid 34 visits to China during Ming Dynasty. In mid 14^th century, the Kingdom of Ilkhanate fell apart in West Asia, leading to the rise of numerous independent states. As a result, there were all races of envoys to China. Ming authorities attached great importance on guests from the west. They set up Foreigners’ Consulate and Bureau of Muslims. History books read “In the first year of Hongwu period (1368), Tai Shi Yuan (Department of Astrology and Calendar) changed name to Si Tian Jian, under which there set a branch called Hui Hui Si Tian Jian (agency in charge of Islamic astrology and calendar). The second year, the Emperor called the Islamic Calendar Officer Zheng Ali and other eleven to the capital to discuss calendric system and cast horoscope. They were awarded for their work” (from the 1^st Chapter of the 1^st Volume of Shu Yu Zhou Zi Lu : Collection of Information on Neighboring Regions). At the same time, Chinese envoys were also sent to the western regions. One example is Fu An, who spent 13 years traveling to the west. During the reign of Emperor Mingchengzu of Ming Dynasty (1360-1424), the Emperor actively promoted the growth of international trade by introducing “opening-up” policy and “sending envoys for trade facilitation” policy and thus creating the prosperity of external exchanges. It was during this exact period that Zheng He, the most famous Chinese navigator created the courageous feat of sailing to the west seven times. His fleet sailed to as far as Saudi Arabia. According to Ma Huan’s record, “in the fifth year of Xuande Period of Ming Dynasty (1430), the Emperor decided to sent Zheng He, Eunuch Officer to foreign countries to announce the Emperor’s decree. When one assisting ship arrives in the State of Guli, eunuch Hong Bao dispatched a boat with seven selected staff to the court of Guli, carrying musk, china and etc. The boat spent one year on the way going and coming back with rare products and treasures such as Kylin, lion, ostrich. They also drew and took back the authentic picture Paradise. The king of Mojia (today’s Mecca) also asked messengers to send their local specialties as gifts to Ming Emperor.” This is the first time that China ever sent people to Mecca for pilgrimage in recorded history. The size of Zheng He’s fleet was the number one in the world at that time. “The fleet consists of huge ships as long as 44 zhang (1 zhang= 3.3 meters) and as wide as 18.62 zhang. It is loaded with 27,800 soldiers.” There were all together 100 to 200 ships in the fleet, among which 40 to 60 were Baochuan (the biggest boat). “With curtains waving in the wind, the fleet seems flying towards the edge of sky”. The scene is really grandeur and impressive. During 28 years of Zheng He’s sailing career from 1405 to 1433, he reached many places on the Arabian Peninsular, such as Zufaer (Dhofar, southern province in Oman), Lasa (Kazakhstan), Adan (Aden) and etc. Ma Huan, who traveled together with Zheng He and served as his interpreter of Arabic Language, wrote Ying Ya Sheng Lan (Tour to the Overseas); another interpreter Fei Xin wrote Xing Cha Sheng Lan (Journey on the Boat), Gong Zhen wrote Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi (Annals of the Western Countries). They all recorded in details the information of Arab countries and are valuable historical materials recalling the friendly contacts between China and the Arab world.

Zheng He brought with him numerous gifts and goods. Whatever country he arrived in, he paid visits to local official and presented gifts as token of friendship. He maintained good relations with higher ranking officials on one hand, on the other hand, he engaged in trade with local people on the streets. The Arabs rushed to buy Chinese products and goods, such as silk, china, cotton, cloth, lacquer-ware, iron-ware and other daily utensils. Zheng He’s delegation also bought local specialties in large volume, such as ivory, frankincense, agate, ostrich and etc. Wherever Zheng He’s fleet reached, crowds of local residents and merchants gathered at the ports, bustling and hustling. They received Zheng He and others with great hospitality.

Zheng He has made tremendous contributions to the friendship between China and the Arab world, the development of maritime transport and trade with foreign countries. Later on, western colonialists invaded the Arabian region and practiced plundering and looting. They “assaulted Chinese boats at the coastal areas and looted their goods”. The friendship between China and the Arabian region was severely damaged. What’s more, as China adopted the restrictive maritime policy of “not going far oceans” by the end of Ming Dynasty and “shutting door policy” in Qing Dynasty, China-Arab friendly exchanges were impeded seriously.

II. Exchange in Culture and Technology

The profound friendship between the Chinese and the Arabs has been built up throughout their communications over the past 2,000 years. The exchanges in economy, trade, culture, technology and various products had greatly contributed to the development of both nations.

China is the birthplace of silk and porcelain. The Silk Road was the earliest international traffic lane between the east and the west, on which silk and porcelain were transported. These Chinese products were even sold to as far as central Asia, the Arab countries, Balkan Peninsula and Europe. People there valued silk and porcelain as treasures of the world. Therefore merchants from many counties followed the footsteps of each other to China, bringing along their local specialties for trade in the prosperous oriental civilization---China. Glass, agates, carols, borax, spice, olibanum, lilacs, pomegranates, ostriches, zebras, sheep, lions, and even rhinoceros horns were all took to China from West Asia, mostly the Arab countries. Some specialties were presented to Chinese emperors as gifts and the rest were traded in the markets. According to historical records, the Arab merchants had been most active and successful ones from the 8^th to the 15^th century. Arab merchants were seen both in Southeast Asia and China. Places such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou had been the most frequently chosen dwelling places for Arab immigrants. Arab products were very popular in China and Chinese products were also available every where in Arab markets. In the eighth century, there were even Chinese porcelain stores in Baghdad. Tang authorities began to regulate and manage foreign trade by setting up due taxation system. “In Tang Dynasty, the government set up Shi Bo Shi to manage international trade. In the 17th year of Zhenguan Period (644), the Emperor instructed three Shi Bo Si that foreign merchants selling camphol, sandalwood, lilacs and white cardamoms must pay 10 per cent of its revenue to government as tax.” (Recorded in Tian Xia Jun Guo Li Bing Shu – The Advantages and Disadvantage of Different Countries, Chapter 130). In Song Dynasty, the establishment of Hushi (trading fair) greatly accelerated international trade. In the 10th year of Xining Period of Song Dynasty (1077), 177,225 kg of Arab olibanum was imported to Guangzhou, Mingzhou and Hangzhou. The government revenue reached 40,000,000 Guan (a monetary unit in ancient China) in the 29th year of Shaoxing Period (1159), among which over 2,000,000 Guan were contributed by Shi Bo Si. It is obvious that taxation from international trade had been crucial to the country’s source of wealth. In Song and Yuan Dynasty, Quanzhou was already “the biggest international trading port in the world”. At that time there were ships from Quanzhou to 72 countries and areas in Asia and Africa. It was recorded in Song Shi (The History of Song Dynasty) that “In the fourth year of Kaibao Period (971), Shi Bo Si was set up in Guangzhou, and then in Hangzhou and Mingzhou, in charge of trading with Tazi and other foreign countries. They traded gold, silver, thread, Chinese money, plumbum, stannum, colourful silk and porcelain for medicines, rhinoceros, elephants, carols, amber, jewels, steely iron, hawkspill, agates, crystal, local cloth, etc. In the reign of Song’s first Emperor, the government opened stores in the capital to sell foreign goods. All foreign goods and treasures shall be transported to and registered at Guangzhou, Jiaozhi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Quanzhou. Goods that were not registered at government agencies couldn’t be traded in the markets. Later on, the rules changed that foreign goods, except for pearls, shells, hawksbills, rhinoceros, elephants, steely iron, carols，agates and olibanum, were allowed to be traded without registration” (Song Shi – The History of Song Dynasty, “Records of Food and Commodities - Regulations for International Trade Markets”. The above examples show that international trade was booming and there were already foreign goods of various kinds in China’s domestic market. During the seven sailings to the western sea by Zheng He and his great fleet in Ming Dynasty, they sailed out with full loads of Chinese goods and returned with innumerable Arab specialties. It was the biggest trading activity at that time, a milestone in the history of international trade.

Along with the development of international trade, more foreigners came to China, who also brought Islamic religion with them. As for at which year Islam was introduced to China, it is still under investigation and remains controversial among historians. Some historical books recorded that it was in the 19^th year of Emperor Suikaihuang of Sui Dynasty (599), while other records mentioned it was the 5^th year of Wude Period of Tang Dynasty (622), or second year of Zhenguan Period of Tang (628) or second year of Yonghui Period of Tang (651) and etc. It was recorded in Ming Shi (History of Ming Dynasty) that, “To the middle of the reign of Ming’s first Emperor, Sahaba-Sa’adigangesi from the (Arab) state introduced the Islamic religion to China.” In Min Shu (History of Fujian in Ming Dynasty), it reads that “Four disciples (of Mohammed) came to China during the reign of Emperor Gao Zu of Tang Dynasty. They introduced Islam to the Chinese people.” The first disciple went to Guangzhou, the second to Yangzhou, and the rest two went to Quanzhou. Tian Fang Zheng Xue (Introduction to the Islamic Religion, translated from Arabic language by Lan Xu) wrote: “Saad Wakkas ibn Hamsa, the Arabian master, uncle of Mohammed brought Koran to China in the sixth year of Zhenguan.” It is widely acknowledged among Chinese Muslims that Wakkas was the first Arab to introduce Islam to China. He passed away in China. We can still find his tomb besides Lau Fa Bridge in Guangzhou. Nowadays most researchers believe that Islam was first introduced to China in 651. Professor Bai Shouyi says, “On August 25th in 651 AD, the third al-Khalifahh of ancient Arab, Osman sent his messenger to Chang’an, the capital of China in Tang Dynast. He was received by the Chinese Emperor. The friendship between the two peoples was therefore built up.”

The Islamic religion was introduced to China via two main channels. One is by the Silk Road on land from Arab to Chang’an, passing Persia, Afghanistan and Xinjiang. The other was the waterway or the so called Spice Road of the sea, from the Persian Gulf to the Indian Sea, then to Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Hangzhou, Yangzhou and finally Chang’an. Silk Road was developed earlier than the Spice Road. During the Yonghui period of Tang Dynasty, the third al-Khalifahh of Tazi expanded the territory to Central Asia with China as the immediate neighbor of shared borders. Traffic between the two was therefore very convenient. It is estimated that Islam was probably introduced to China by the Silk Road.

Back in Tang Dynasty, Guangzhou, Quanzhou and Yangzhou were already crucial international trading ports for ancient Arab and Persian merchants. At that time there were up to tens of thousands or over a hundred thousand of them according to historical records. With such a huge Muslim population pouring into China, it is for sure that their religion was also brought in and widely disseminated throughout China.. Suleiman, an Arab who came to China during the first half of the ninth century wrote in his travel stories that “Muslim merchants mostly gathered in Guangzhou. Consequently, Chinese Emperor appointed a magistrate governing Muslims in accordance with their customs and traditions. The magistrate spent several days out of a week praying together with other Muslims and reading sages’ teachings and admonitions. ……Justice is administered based on the teachings of Koran and Muslim customs”. With the wide spread of the Islamic religion, mosques emerged here and there, such as in Guangzhou, Quanzhou and Chang’an. Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou and Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou were the earliest mosques in the Chinese history. To the east of Huaisheng Mosqure, there was a cylindrical minaret named Guang Minaret. It is said to be the first Islamic minaret in China, built by the first Muslim missionary Wakkas. With the spread of Islam and the increase of Muslims, more mosques emerged along the southeastern coastline of China. Arab Islamic architecture was introduced to China as well, greatly enriching the traditional Chinese architecture.

Although the Islamic religion was introduced to China as early as Tang Dynasty, its scripture Koran had only been passed on in oral forms from mouth to mouth without any translated written forms. It was not until the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty that written Islamic scripture came into existence. A Chinese Muslim in Nanjing named Liu Zhi (also known as Liu Jielian) compiled three books, Tian Fang Dian Li (The Islamic Religion), Tian Fang Xing Li (The Islamic Philosophy) and Tian Fang Zhi Sheng Shi Lu (The Biography of Mohammed). In Tian Fang Zhi Sheng Shi Lu, Koran was for the first time translated into Chinese (only three chapters). The earliest separate editions of Chinese translation of complete Koran were Bao Ming Zhen Jing Zhi Jie by Ma Fuchu from Yunan Province and Hai Ting Jie Shi by Ma Lianyuan. In 1925, Shanghai Islamic Society started to organize professionals to translate Koran. In 1927, the first finished work by Tie Zheng was officially published and a later edition by Wang Wenqing and others was published in 1931. In recent years, Koran translated by Professor Ma Jian and others has become the best well-received one.

China is an ancient civilization while Arab culture is also of great influence in the world. Their exchanges of science, technology and culture also bore fruitful results during their contacts over the years in history. China was the first country in world to use iron. Ironware was first introduced to Iran in the Parthian Dynasty and then to the Arabian region, which greatly helped to improve the productivity there. In the Tang Dynasty, gunpowder-making and spagirism were also introduced to the Arab world. In the 10th year of Tianbao Period (751), China and Tazi had an armed conflict in Talas, in which Tang troops were defeated and lots of craftsmen were seized as captives of Tazi. Paper-makers among the captives took paper-making techniques to the western region. In 793, the first paper factory was established in Baghdad. Following the first one, many were set up in Morocco and other places. Some of them hired Chinese paper making professionals to give guidance or train local staff. The wide use of paper resulted in a great leap forward of the development and dissemination of Arab culture. Meanwhile Chinese painters and spinners continued to share their techniques with Arabs in their region. Du Huan of Tang Dynasty who had traveled throughout the Arab world wrote in his Jing Xing Ji (Travelling Experience) that “Among spinners, gold-and-silver craftsmen, painters from China were recognized as masters, including painter Fan Shu, Liu Ci from Jingzhao (today’s Xi’an) and spinner Yue Huan, Lv Li from Hedong (today’s Shanxi Province).” Compass, an invention of the Song Dynasty, was also brought to the Arabian region along with the frequent maritime exchanges between China and the Arab world, accelerating the region’s navigation development. The craft of Chinese porcelain making was also introduced to the Arabian region in the Song Dynasty. In the Fatimid Dynasty (969 to 1171), Egyptians made a lot of porcelains using Chinese techniques, which is proved by the porcelain pieces unearthed from Fustat, the ancient Cairo. Gunpowder was brought to the Arabian region by the Mongols during their invasion of the western region. Mai Jing (Instruction of Pulse) by the famous doctor Wang Shuhe from Jin Dynasty was widely read in West Asia. Its Persian translation is still well preserved in Iran. The existing Persian translation, Wang Shuhe Mai Jue (Wang Shu and His Instruction of Pulse) was the hand-written copy by Kermani in 1293. It is unique that transliteration is provided before explanation. The content of the book can also be detected in Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine. After the Mongols established the Ilkhanate Kingdom in west Asia, a famous scholar named Rashid al-Din translated Wang Shuhe’s Mai Jing and incorporated its theory in his own book called the Storehouse of Chinese Medicine in Ilkhanate. Chinese shadow play was brought to west Asia and the Arabian region in the 12th century and passed on by generations even to today. It is a popular form of entertainment before movie was invented.

In the middle Ages, Mesopotamia culture was the most developed on earth, with astronomy, mathematics, architecture, geography, astrology and medicine enjoying world leading place at the moment. Due to the China-Arab communications, the Chinese civilization has been enriched by the influence of Islamic Calendar, medicines and architecture. According to the historical records of Yuan Dynasty, the famous Arab geographer Jamal al-Din himself presented his globe to Emperor Qubilai, the first Emperor of Yuan Dynasty. Arab medicines were also widely practiced in China. In Yuan Dynasty, an administrative organ Guang Hui Si was set up as a branch of the royal hospital to research on Arab medicines. In Yuan Shi (The History of Yuan Dynasty), it was written in the chapter of “Bai Guan Zhi” (the government system) that “officials of Guang Hui Si are the third highest ranking ones among all government officials. They are in charge of the research and production of Muslim medicines to cure night-shift guards and people who catches cold.” It was at this period that some Arab herbs and drugs such as myhrra, borax, Radix Vladimiriae, and opium were introduced to China. The architecture of Islamic mosques had great influence in China. Yuan Da Du (today’s Beijing) was designed and constructed with the participation of Arabs.

Many Arabs went down in Chinese history as the most renowned personnel in each and every dynasty. Some were wealthy merchants, some passed the royal exams and took official positions in the court and others were appointed as military generals. For example, In 729, a Tazi leader named Tibeiduo came to China and was appointed as corps commander. In 741, the Tang authorities appointed three Tazi messengers, namely Han Cuo, Wu Ji, Sha Bi as imperial corps commander. During the reign of Emperor Xuan in Tang Dynasty (685-762), Li Yansheng from Tazi passed the Jin Shi examination (a state level test). He was among the few Arab experts of Chinese culture, who could even write essays and poems in Chinese. In Song Dynasty, an Arab merchant Pu Shougeng was recorded to be “the offspring of the Arabs and too rich to be competed in Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces.” He later entered into China’s political stage by taking charge of Shi Bo Si of Quanzhou. He was also appointed corps Commander of Fujian Province and official in charge of Fujian Shi Bo Si. After Song was terminated, he continued his official career as the assistant governor of Fujian Province in Yuan Dynasty. Due to wars, Al-Sayyid Shams al-Din'Umar from Mecca came to China with his brother Elsa, leading more than 5,000 soldiers and was warmly welcome by Emperor Songshenzong (1048-1085). The emperor appointed him as vice prime minister of foreign affairs. He made great contributions to the construction and development of Yunnan province. The first Emperor of Yuan Dynasty, Qubilai even appointed Shams al-Din as the governor of Xiayang City. In 1279, when he passed away, his son Nasu-Lading succeeded him as the governor of Yunnan. Shams al-Din had nine sons and 13 grand sons with 13 different surnames such as Na, Ma, Sa, Ha, Sha, Sai, Su, Hu, Shan, He, etc. Their off-springs live in Yunnan till today. Ding Henian was a very well-known Muslim merchant in Yuan Dynasty. Certain medicine-shops were even named after him till today in Hangzhou. It is said that his ancestors were Arabian immigrants. His grand father and his brother Umar were also said to be big merchants. His brother Umar was even once the vice prime minister of Gansu. In the early Ming Dynasty, people started to name it as Arab instead of Tazi. During the Hongwu period(from 1368 to 1398), the emperor set up a Muslim astrology office and assigned Zheng Ali and other 11 Arab officers to take care of calendars and astrology.

In ancient times there were quite a few Arabs wrote about China in their travel books, such as Suleiman’s Travel Notes, Abu Said Hassan’s Travel Notes, Yibin Kudateba’s Routs and Provinces, Yibin Rosede’s Records, Al-Masoudi’s The Meadows of Gold, Ibn Battūta’s Travel of Ibn Battūta etc. The Arab merchant Suleiman wrote a book about his travel to the east in 851. It was the first Arab book about China. He recorded the Chinese culture, customs, regulations and systems. He was also the first foreigner who recorded the tea culture of Chinese people (who started to drink tea in the Han Dynasty). During his visit to China, Abu Said Hassan wrote about the Revolt of Huangchao in Guangzhou and Hangzhou in the second year of Qianfu Period (875) and his companion Ha-wabo’s conversation with Emperor Tangxizong. Al-Masoudi, an Arab historian and geographer, visited China’s coastal areas in Liang Dynasty in 915 and wrote about the international trade between China and the Arabian region. His great work Gold, Grassland and Treasures was a series of nine books, a very valuable historical record. It took French men 17 years to translate the whole series. The Moroccan citizen Ibn Battūta was among the four greatest explorers in the middle ages (the rest three were Marco Polo, Friar Odoric and Nicolo Conti). In 1325, he came to China via North Africa, Persia and India, and visited Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Hangzhou and other places. He told stories about his 28 years travelling throughout China and was written down by other people into the book named Travel of Ibn Battūta. These Arab travelers and their works are all great treasures for our research on the history of China-Arab communications.

In Chinese historical records, those recording China-Arab friendly exchanges and China’s external relations were the largest in terms of volumes. For instance, Han Shu (The History of Han Dynasty), Wei Lue (The History of Wei), Jing Xing Ji (Travel Experience), Tong Dian (Cyclopedia of Institution), Tang Shu (The History of Tang), You Yang Za Zu (The Miscellany of Youyang Mountains), Zi Zhi Tong Jian (The General History), Ce Fu Yuan Gui (The History of Northern Song Dynasty), Song Shi (The History of Song Dynasty), Tai Ping Guang Ji (a collection of the unofficial Song history), Ling Wai Dai Da (the history of Guangxi province in Song Dynasty), Zhu Fan Shi (a field guide of neighbouring countries), Yuan Shi (the history of Yuan Dynasty), Xi Shi Ji(the history of Yuan Dynasty’s expansion to the west), Dao Yi Zhi Lue (a field guide to islands the South East Asia), Ming Shi (The History of Ming Dynasty), Xing Cha Lan Sheng and Ying Ya Sheng Lan (both about China-foreign communications in Ming Dynasty), Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi (a record of Zheng He’s journey to west Asia), Xi Yang Chao Gong Dian Lu (a combination and correction of Xing Cha Lan Sheng and Ying Ya Sheng Lan), Qing Shi (The History of Qing Dynasty) etc. The ancient Chinese people who had traveled to the Arab countries had made great contributions to the communications between China and the Arabian region The first Chinese messenger to the west was Zhang Qian in Han Dynasty. Following him was Zhang Chao and his assistant Gan Ying who visited the Kingdom of Antiochia. Gan Ying was the first connection between China and the Arabian countries. Du Huan from Tang Dynasty stayed 12 years in Bagdad, Egypt, Morocco and other Arabian areas, and became a sincere friend of the Arabian people. He wrote the book Jing Xing Ji after returning to China, which became the first Arab travel book in Chinese history. In Tang Dynasty, Duan Cheng’s You Yang Za Zu and Jia Dan’s Tong Hai Yi Dao both described the communications between China and Arab during that period. Entering the Song Dynasy, the Spice Road of the sea had already become more popular than the Silk Road on land. Apart from lots of description in Song Shi, Zhu Fan Zhi by Zhao Rushi and Ling Wai Dai Da by Zhou Qufei both recorded it in great details. In Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols expanded from China to the Arabian world, enabling better communications between the two worlds. Between 1328 and 1339, Wang Da Yuan made his journey twice to the Persian Gulf, Basra, Mecca, Cairo and a few other places. In 1336, he even went to Tangier, the hometown of Ibn Battūta. He included all his seeing and experience from these trips into the book Dao Yi Zhi Lue. The world well-known navigator Zheng He from Ming Dynasty lead his fleets with over 20,000 people to over 37 countries and areas. His visits to the western world were even earlier than Columbus, and greater were his contributions. His companions Ma Huan, Fei Xin and Gong Zhen also wrote books about the exploration which are all of great values. Zheng He contributed enormously to build up the friendship between China and the Arab world. Due to the self-isolation policy of the Qing Dynasty, China rarely had any communication with the outside world. But Chinese scholars continued to write about the Arab countries. Zhao Qing Ge wrote in his Ben Cao Gang Mu Shi Yi (Supplement to Compendium of Material Medical) that distilled water was invented and introduced to China by Arabs. Liu Zhi wrote three books about the Arab world in Emperor Kangxi’s reign (from 1661 to 1722). In 1890 Ma Anli translated the greatest work of Arabian poet Busyir, Gasuid-Burda. Upon the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the friendship between China and the Arab world entered a brand-new era.

Senior research fellow of IWAAS